Vesuvius, locally known as 'il Vesuvio', casts a silent shadow over a memory of a society forever lost along the shores of the Bay of Naples. The old Etruscan cities of Pompeii, and the nearby smaller Herculaneum, were founded in the 5th century BC in the south of Italy in a region known as Campania. These were the favored seaside retreats of the Roman patrician classes and the wealthy far from the hustle and bustle of the metropolis Rome. Serene and famed for it's leisurely setting, Pompeii also became a haven for writers like Pliny the Elder and Pliny the Younger, b. 61 AD d. 112 AD, who sought inspiration within the ambiance of the seaside resort. Today, among the ruins, frozen in dust, a cold silence envelops the haunting ruins where the wind barely carries the faintest echoes of laughter and tears and life as it once was is but condemned to the shadows of the mind. One could not imagine the violence of nature of the day. Blue as blue could ever be, serene Mediterranean seas reflect the ruddy glint of the dying sun. In the evenings one could almost forget the lost voices of the past, watching the sun dip over the horizon, whilst enjoying a moment of stillness, one always feels entranced as sky touches the sea and the whole world becomes a vast canopy of deepening Mediterranean blue.
She blew in AD 79. In an utterly terrifying moment lives were lost leaving only the stony forms to articulate the dark finality of life. Wealthy and slave alike were buried in volcanic ash. But the surviving stones themselves speak and serve to remind us of the life that once thrived though now entombed beneath the long dark shadow of a mountain that erupted all those years ago. The exact date is pinned somewhere between 24 august and 24 October 79 AD. The emperor Vespasian died on 24 June 79 AD and was succeeded by Titus. According to the eye-witness account of the Roman writer Pliny the Younger the eruption was instantly catastrophic. Indeed the uncle Pliny the Elder lost his life in the chaos of the eruption. altogether some 1500 bodies have been discovered in both Pompeii and Herculaneum, but it is truly unknown how many people actually perished that fateful day. Molten volcanic rock is said to have been spewed out across some 33 kilometers altogether and so the number of casualties must have been considerable; so considerable indeed that the new emperor Titus himself personally visited to inspect the relief work at Pompeii.
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| Silent stones under the long shadow of Vesuvius |
Roman society in 79 AD. was now under the grip of the Emperors who oversaw a mighty Empire that stretched from Great Britain and Spain in the West, to Modern Germany in the north, the long coastline of North Africa in the South across to the Middle East and up towards Asia Minor and Greece in the East. Centuries of wars against Carthage, the Gauls and Germanic tribes and Greece eventually forged an Empire to serve the needs of the institution of Rome.
Christianity as yet was not an organized force in a world dominated by pagan beliefs and the Roman pantheon of Gods; such as Lord Jupiter, Mars and Venus, Mercury and Neptune and a host of lesser gods that commanded respect and attention.
In a world dominated by the needs of Rome; all roads led to Rome and all commerce engaged to serve Rome as society would define itself through a hierarchical system of reward. Where slave could endeavor to become a free man; where soldier could aspire to become master and agrarian in goal, where mercantile trader could toil to find rewards through rich patronage of noble classes; as a whole, the entire fabric of society could become mobile in the pursuit of merit through the course of evolution of plebeian to patrician. As Rome grew in wealth in time so did it's wealth illustrate itself in the architecture and interior design of an opulent society.
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| Frescoes at Pompeii portray social scenes of the age |
Fresco paintings are essential pigment applied to wet plaster as a wall of a building is erected. There is very little time to complete the fresco painting as the limestone and plaster sets and so artists need great skill to work with the clock and how they would do this is by working methodically like everything else in Roman nature of engineering and construction. The artist would cut the wall into component sections which would then help him to work in the base background colors with speed whilst an assistant may be working on the detail part of a recently completed background section. Such methodical movement across the wall sections would enable the artist to complete before the lime plaster would set with the interaction of air.
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| Oplontis fresco at Pompeii |
German born art historian, August Mau, b. 1840 d.1909, classified the buildings and paintings at Pompeii into 4 broad categories in time. Firstly; simple decorative masonry consisting of stones mortared into a wall with applied pigment of color was the predominant style of the period 2nd century BC until 80 BC during the republican Period of Rome. Secondly, from 80 BC to 20 AD we observe that such decorated walls become painted with figures and religious and theatrical images concurrent with the rising prosperity of Rome. A third style of decorated fresco art can be highlighted from 20 BC to 20 AD with plain large areas of single color with themes of nature in decoration. Finally a fourth distinct style can be observed from 62 AD to 79 AD with depictions of fantastic themes from mythology.
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| Scenes of wildlife and nature in Pompeii fresco |
We can learn much about the pigments used in an artist's pallet from the writings of the Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius Pollio b. unknown d. 15 AD from his famous works - De Architectura.
From the frescoes that survive at Pompeii it is very obvious that the choice color of palette was predominantly red. In Italy reddish earth was readily available due to deposits of red iron ore and red ochre. These deposits were mixed with a local herb known as madder root and even with crushed insects. Bright red Vermillion, made from the mineral ore Cinnabar, was the most finest and expensive red pigment in the range of reds and the artist would charge a patron the amount of 2 denarri per Roman Pound in weight. Red ochre was the cheapest and about 10 times less expensive than the bright red Vermillion. The Cinnabar Vermillion was used extensively in temples and lavish villas of the wealthy.
According to Pliny the Younger, ‘rich blue, vermilion green, indigo blue’ were the most expensive pigments not customarily found in the artists standard palette with indigo costing a near incredible 20 denarii per Roman Pound weight. Armenian blue was made out of the ground azurite powder and the luxurious purple pigments were made by crushing sea snails. Purple pigment was also made by mixing hematite with Egyptian blue, madder and indigo.
Second favorite to red comes the yellows and browns in the artist's standard palette. The Roma architect Vitruvius writing in the 1st century BC, mentions a source of arsenic which gave the yellow tint. Also Limonite, a yellow iron ore was used to create the popular pigment.
Black, of course, was made out of the charcoal and soot. white was obtained from chalky calcium carbonate in limestone.
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| Cupid seller to young maiden Villa di Arianna at Stabiae, near Pompeii |
Art evolved with politics in history; that the history of art and economic development should be entwined comes as no surprise to the student of Roman social history.
The political setting around Pompeii in the 1st century AD was predominantly violent. Men of power at Rome sought gains of no ending and much means. After the death of the first emperor Augustus political life descended into a struggle for power that was indeed turbulent. Just to give the reader a brief understanding of the politics of strife the next 60 years becomes a chaotic setting of political upheaval and murder before the eventual eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. The politics of Rome in the 1st
century AD had taken an ugly turn since the days of the first Roman
emperor Augustus Caesar who died peacefully after a 40 year reign on 19 August 14 AD.
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| Augustus Caesar of Prima Porta - early 1st century AD |
The peace and prosperity that Augustus brought to a divided Rome riddled with political strife bred new jealousies for success and power. Augustus had chose Tiberius as heir; who reigned for 22 more peaceful years as Rome boomed with economic prosperity. But eventually Tiberius was assassinated by his own heir Caligula on 16 march 37 AD. Caligula was loved by the mob and hated by the Patricians and he too succumbed through assassination after a mere 3 years rule on 24 January 41 AD after a conspiracy between some senators an the private Praetorian Guard of Caligula, who installed his uncle Claudius as the new emperor. In time the politics of Rome brought an end to Claudius after 13 years of prosperous reign as a jealous wife Aggrippina the Younger poisoned Claudius to install her own some; the unpredictable Nero on the 13 October 54 AD. By all accounts Nero was mad and after having set fire to Rome was declared a public enemy in a political tussle which eventually saw him commit suicide on 9 June 68 AD. Thus came to an end the Julio-Claudian Dynasty of descendants of Augustus Caesar. Equally the next four Emperors of the new Flavian Dynasty up to he reign of Titus and the fateful day in 79 AD, all suffered unhappy endings. Galba installed after Nero lasted a mere 7 months as the Praetorian Guard did away with him yet again on 15 January 69 AD. His successor Otho fared even less! An astounding 3 months in office and Otho mysteriously commit suicide? It takes some courage to lead a coup against the Emperor Galba, yet Otho too dies at his own hand, so they say. The next successor Vitellius was murdered by his own soldiers on 20 December 69 AD. Then finally not since the days of Augustus Caesar appears an emperor, Vespasian, who reigns peacefully for 10 years and finally dies of natural causes unrelated to any political scheming. Vespasian passes away on 24 June 79 AD and is succeeded by Titus shortly before the eruption at Pompeii.
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| Mars fresco in House of Venus at Pompeii |
In all societies the common people aspire to better their lives an those born endowed with wealth seek to preserve their privileges. Thus too the story of Rome and the evolution of it's art becomes the story of economic development; a social growth within Italy and of political struggle and armed conflict for economic supremacy in the Mediterranean and then across the known world.
The militarist expansion program of Rome began with Rome's clashes with the other great Mediterranean power Carthage in a series of three wars fought between
264 BC to 146 BC and came to be known collectively as the 'Punic Wars'. Exacting on the fabric of society, further bloody conflicts in Greece, Asia, Spain and Gaul stretched the prime of Italian manhood to the very limits. Roman armies needed men; and Rome was not producing children as fast as it's soldiers were dying for the cause of economic expansion. With a growing army and growing need for men during the Punic Wars Rome required the constant recruitment and retention of nearly thirty per cent of all eligible young men from the age of eighteen years and up. With a vast proportion of it's youth now engaged in military service a great degree of marriageable young men saw their chances of a family delayed for the service of Rome. Thus, it became an inevitable need to adopt a flexible immigration policy of Italian neighbors and in time provincial youth to service a growing army.
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| House of the Vettii in Pompeii |
During the era of the Punic Wars and through the Republican period of the 1st century BC Rome needed a thrifty agrarian class as well as a vibrant mercantile class to build the social infrastructure of Rome as She expanded and drew more and more upon the best Italian stock of men for purposes of War. Inevitably by the time of Julius Casear, Dictator of Rome around 45 BC the lower free men classes of workers and slaves that were not drawn into the military were left free to work and multliply; so much so that those young men of noble Italian roots became a fast dwindling class of men of patricians and equities as noble and wealthy individuals began of true Italian descent began to become scarce.
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| Villa of Mystery in Pompeii |
As the Roman scholar Varro, b.116 BC d. 27 BC observed; a system of rewards and assimilation of the foreigner and servant would become the lifeblood of Rome to ensure it's continuity. Hard working slaves bought their freedom and became hard working citizens of Rome in a system of social promotion that served the ethics of hard labor and loyalty to Rome. Noble women had intercourse with servant foreign men and children produced were no longer seen as scandalous but necessary due to the lack of Italian men. Such children adopted noble names as a system of adoption in the 1st Century BC guaranteed that a family name could continue should the true name-bearer be unable to produce children due to the stress of service for Rome. Many foreigners also arrived at Rome to set up in small trading business and earned a quick respect and eventual Roman assimilation and full civil liberty in reward for the hard labor shown. Such foreigners were quick to adopt local customs and traditions and their offspring soon secured full civil liberty as their parents often assumed new Roman names to maintain the upward momentum of the working classes in their quest for material gains and success in Rome.
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| Pompeii wall fresco of Baker couple 79 AD. |
In the fresco above a hard-working baker couple are portrayed to demonstrate the aspirations of the working classes; the wife showing her book-keeping studiousness and the husband the laurels of a free man able to conduct his business as a citizen of Rome and build his future vision. The portrait of 1st century AD Rome as a blood-thirsty and pleasure seeking society belies the true hard-working structure of society where gaiety becomes but a single part of a larger life whose overall aspect of toil is rather commonly and conveniently forgotten. Masons toiled day and night constructing dwellings for rich and poor alike, craftsmen burned the midnight oil carving furniture, potters fashioned earthen ceramics and butchers slaughtered animals for meat as the nuts and bolts of society would individually provide the basis for the rewards of gaiety. In all societies the concept of reward from work becomes an inspiration as do the frescoes of Pompeii gently remind us that the acknowledgement of hard work is just as much appreciated as the placidity of a seaside retreat removed form the hustle and bustle of the great city of Rome in the north.
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| Fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries |
As the lower classes earned their freedoms their hard earned money was put to cheerful use very much as a modern man would seek to furnish his own dwellings to find more appeasement with domestic life. Successful bakers and craftsmen and scholars from ordinary walks of life would pay to color their interior abodes with frescoes to enrich their lives and demonstrate the level of their success to others in society. The more successful people were then the more ornate designs they chose for interior decoration through the form of frescoes.
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| The charmed life of a patrician class lady of the house. Pompeii 79 AD. |
By the time of the 1st century AD, although the politics of Rome was turbulent; the chances and opportunities for all who worked hard were evident as all roads began to lead to Rome for success and reward. The southern coast of Italy had always been revered for it's tranquility and thus in time the twin towns of
Pompeii and the nearby smaller Herculaneum became popular not only for the wealthy classes but for ordinary people who would find a goal to aspire to in the daily routine of work and building success for the future of the family.
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| Wall frescoes at Pompeii |
At the time of the eruption the economy of Pompeii would have serviced a booming real estate market as villas were being build in even greater numbers as citizens of Rome sought placid sojourns away from the turbulence of Rome. Pompeii and the the coastal towns that grew in the South of Italy in the province of Capua, along the Sorrento and Amalfi coastline, not only became places of retreat for the rich and famous but also for those who worked in the houses of the rich. Where the rich gom a variety of administrators, workers and servants would follow. The demand for goods and services would flourish. Local industry would have been at full force. Craftsmen of all sorts would have set up shop to fashion houses and adorn their interiors and gardens. Sailors would have provided rental boats for the leisured classes. All kinds of workers would have been needed to keep the little seaside towns going and all these workers themselves needed to be houses whether in the villas themselves or other modes of apartment. Places of eatery and inns for rest would have sprung up to serve the working classes who labored to create the holiday towns of the South and provide whatever goods required from handicrafts to foodstuffs and cloths of all sorts. Thus, altogether the Pompeii of AD 79 would have been a place of lively activity from sunrise to sunset and in one fateful evening all that life that once was, came to an abrupt end as the darkness of Vesuvius would descend for eternity.
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| Two young girls fresco at Pompeii |
Today, nothing remains as the sands of time sweep away the barest memory and twinkling echo of the past. Alone, in silence, people tread amid the ruins in reverence.
Discussions in fine art by Pieter Bergli
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